Category: People

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Guanzhuba

Guanzhuba 管主巴 (Tib. bKa’ ‘gyur pa)

Guanzhuba was the General Secretary of the Buddhist Clergy in Songjiang Prefecture by imperial appointment in the early 14th century. The office of the Buddhist Clergy was one of the many offices under the administration of the Commission of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs (Ch. Xuan zheng yuan). The Commission was responsible for the Buddhist affairs of the entire nation as well as local administration of Tibetan areas and was directed by the Imperial Preceptor.

Guanzhuba is thought to be of either Xixia or Tibetan descent, with a Tibetan education. According to a Chinese colophon to a Xixia text found in the Mogao Cave in Dunhuang dated to 1307, he was responsible for directing the printing and distribution of numerous significant Buddhist texts in Chinese, Xixia, and Tibetan script.

He is perhaps most known for the reprinting of the complete edition of the Xixia Tripitaka (Ch. Xixiazang) in the Dawanshou Monastery in Hangzhou in 1302 under the imperial command of Khubilai Khan (although Khubilai passed away in 1294). At the completion of printing, Guanzhuba distributed numerous copies to monasteries in areas of the former Xixia state. This reprint was based on an edition that was originally printed during the time of the Xixia state (1032-1226AD). Examining the wood-cut illustrations within both editions of the Xixia Tripitaka, Guanzhuba’s later Xixia Tripitaka (classified as the Yuan kan) show transformations in composition and style that reflect an amalgamation of Tibetan and Chinese elements as compared to the woodcut illustrations from the earlier Xixa Tripitaka (classified as the Xixia kan) that reflect an early Tibetan style influenced by the Indian Pala dynasty.

Guanzhuba also printed Tibetan-language texts of the Gandhatara, Prajnaparamita, and Sitatapatra, which he distributed in Tibet (Ch. Tufan).

Additionally, he was responsible for printing the missing esoteric sections of the Jisha (or Qisha) edition of the Chinese Tripitaka (Ch. Jishazang) from 1306-07. To finish these sections, he took up donations, collections of funds, as well as used his own personal contributions. He also undertook the task of printing the missing esoteric sections for editions of Tripitakas that he collected from various other provinces.

After the destruction of the Xixia state at the hands of Chinggis Khan in 1227, the continued interest in, as well as ability to, order the reprinting of the Xixia canon more than seven decades later demonstrates the continued influence of Xixia culture in the Yuan. The geographic scope of Guanzhuba’s activities, extending from Tibet and Xixia in the west to Fujian and Zhejiang in the east, as well as his printing base in Hangzhou, the cultural capital of the Han Chinese, reveal the pervasive paths of esoteric Buddhism under the Yuan.


Sources:

Patricia Berger. Preserving the Nation: The Political Uses of Tantric Art in China. In Later Days of the Law: Images of Chinese Buddhism 850-1850. Lawrence: Spencer Museum of Art, University of Kansas. 1994. pp. 89-125.
Heather Karmay. Early Sino-Tibetan Art. Aris and Phillips. 1975. pp. 35-42.
Rinchen Drashi. “Tibetan Buddhism and the Yuan Royal Court,” Tibet Studies. 1988. pp. 1-26.

Entry by Eveline S. Yang, 1/30/07

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Köden

Köden (Died between 1253-1260)

Köden was Ögödei Khan’s second son and primarily had his seat of power located in Liangzhou, which had been under the rule of the Xia Empire. According to historical records, Köden was likely the first member of the Mongol ruling house that came into contact with the Sa skya Sect of Tibetan Buddhism when he launched an attack on Tibet in 1240AD. Dor-ta, the general who led the army into Tibet, had intended to return to Liangzhou with the Bri gung abbot. The abbot was to give advice and instruct the Mongols on the Buddhist doctrine. However, the Bri gung abbot, for fear of his life, declined the invitation and instead suggested to Dor-ta that the Sa skya Pandita was perhaps a better choice for the job. As a result, Köden summoned the Sa skya Pandita in 1244 and the first historical meeting between a member of the Mongol ruling house and leader of a Tibetan Buddhist sect occurred in 1246. Later Tibetan histories claimed that Sa skya Pandita was given a new political role where he was incorporated into the Mongol bureaucracy as the representative of the new rulers in Tibet. During Köden’s contact with the Sa skya Pandita, the latter healed Köden from an illness which was said to have been one of the reasons he was by-passed as a candidate to the position of Khan. However, in another little known work of ‘Phags pa, the first Imperial Preceptor under Kubilai Khan, he mentioned that Köden had received special blessings from the Sa skya Pandita and was able to “speedily produce a son”. As a reward for the Pandita’s act, Köden gave him the local temple Sprul pa’i sde (白塔寺 Baitasi or White Stupa Temple) where the Sa skya Pandita was later buried in 1251.

After the death of Güyüg Khan, a series of power struggles came into play with Möngke Khan emerging victorious. The members of the new Mongol ruling house took over patronage of the different Tibetan sects. The Sa skya sect was still left in the care of Köden while Khubilai, Möngke’s younger brother was given the Tshal pa sect. However, on his way back from an attack in Sichuan around 1252-53, Kubilai requested that Koöen hand over Phags pa, the Sa Skya Pandita’s nephew and had a personal audience with him. Kubilai was impressed with the wisdom of ‘Phags pa and consequently honored him with the title of Imperial Preceptor some years later. Köden’s influence and authority over the Sa skya sect was thus transferred to Kubilai Khan.


Sources:

Luciano Petech. 1983. Tibetan Relations with Sung China and the Mongols, In China among equals: The Middle Kingdom and its neighbors, 10th – 14th Centuries. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 173-204
Drashi Rinchen, Tibetan Buddhism and the Yuan Royal Court, In Tibetan Studies, pp 1-26.
Chris Beckwith, 1987, Tibetan Science at the Court of the Great Khans, In Tibetan Society Vol. 7. pp 5-11.

Entry by ShiQi Wu, 1/30/07

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Sa-skya Pandita

Sa-skya Pandita / Pandit from Sakya (1182-1251)

Künga Gyeltsen was a son of Pelchen Öpo, the eldest son of the first of the five Sakya superiors, Sachen Künga Nyingpo. When he was a teenager, he left Sakya and studied under various teachers of the major Indian Buddhist philosophical and doctrinal trends. In 1204, when the Kashmiri master Shakyashribhadra brought Indian scholars to Tibet, Sakya Pandita learned directly from knowledgeable Indians and went back to Sakya with Suhatashri, one of the scholars. After his uncle and a teacher, Drakpa Gyeltsen, died in 1216, Sakya Pandita became a leader of the religious tradition of Sakya.

Koden was a grand son of Genghis Khan. After he led an unsuccessful campaign in Sichuan, he turned his attention to Tibet. He summoned Sakya Pandita in 1244 with a letter with courteous tone, but threatening contents. Sakya Pandita went to Liangzhou (凉州=武威), with two of his nephews, Pakpa Lodrö Gyeltsen and Chakna Dorjé. Sakya Pandita and Koden agreed on the main points of their future relationships in 1247. Sakya Pandita sent letters to Ü, Tsang and Ngari, and advised them to submit and allow the Mongols to exact taxes and to levy troops. Sakya Pandita spent rest of his life in Liangzhou, and passed away in 1251. He was honored by both Tibetans and Mongolian peoples.


Sources:

Matthew T. Kapstein, “The Tibetans.” (Massachusetts, 2006)
Luciano Petech, “Tibetan Relations with Sung China and the Mongols” in “China among equals: the Middle Kingdom and its neighbors, 10th-14th centuries.” (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983)
Hankyu Kim, “The Historical Relationship Between China and Tibet.” (Seoul, 2003)

Entry by Seul ki Park, 2/07

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‘Phags pa

‘Phags-pa

Following the religious preceptorship that emerged in Tangut state (Chin.: Great Hsia or Hsi Hsia 西夏, 1038-1227) as a model, Mongol rulers adopted this institution of imperial preceptorship (Chin.: ti-shih 帝師) as a means of dealing with the increasing multiethnic population within its territory. First Chinese Buddhism, and then Tibetan Buddhism won over the Mongol Royal family. ‘Phags-pa was a well known Tibetan scholar-monk who was recognized as “imperial preceptor” (1260) and “state preceptor” later by Kublai Khan.

‘Phags-pa (1235-1280) was a member of the Sa skya sect of Buddhism. ‘Phags-pa accompanied his uncle Kunga Gyaltsen, the fourth forefather of the Sa skya sect to Liangzhou for an interview with Prince Godan in 1244. After Kunga Gyaltsen died in Liangzhou in 1251, ‘Phags-pa remained in the Huanhua monastery in Liangzhou at his age of sixteen. ‘Phags-pa became an important historical figure since he had an interview with the then Prince Kublai on Mt. Liupanshan in 1253. Kublai received a Buddhist consecration (Abhiseka) by ‘Phags-pa in 1253 and treated him as his tutor thereafter. When Kublai ascended the throne, he granted ‘Phags-pa the title of “Imperial Preceptor” and gave him responsibility for Buddhist affairs within Yuan dynasty’s territory. Later, ‘Phags-pa was also granted a title “Great Treasure Prince of Dharma” due to his invention of a Mongolian script, called “’Phags-pa Script” nowadays, which was promoted throughout the state in the course of Yuan dynasty; and honored with the title of “Imperial Preceptor of the Yuan Dynasty”.

In addition to invent “’Phags-pa Script”, ‘Phags-pa also introduced the cult of Yamantaka into China, and it seems that ‘Phags-pa had knowledge of medicine as well. ‘Phags-pa, therefore, was not merely a powerful religious figure, but also was an important scholar in other areas. His huge influence on Mongol was mainly accomplished by tutoring or advising the member of the royal family, rather than the civilians within the state. Kublai’s choice of ‘Phags-pa remains controversial, in part due to the young age at which he was recognized as Kublai’s tutor. Nevertheless, ‘Phags-pa was a promising monk and the Mongolian influence on him was hugely important for Kublai to control the multiethnic state.

From the Tibetan perspective, ‘Phags-pa was a prominent Lama for many reasons. ‘Phags-pa went back to Sa skya in the summer of 1264 and he set up thirteen official posts. ‘Phags-pa came back Sa skya in 1274 due to the social disorder in Tubo, with the permission from Kublai Khan. He died in Sa skya on November 24, 1280. Ye Rinchen, ‘Phags-pa’s brother succeeded his position of Imperial Preceptor afterwards. ‘Phags-pa was granted posthumously a title of “Lord Under the Divine Sky, Propagator of Literature of the Court, Great Sage of the Highest Virtue, Profound Wisdom and Accomplished Enlightenment, Great Treasure Prince of the Dharma, Prince of the Deities of Paradise, Pandita the Imerpial preceptor.” by Kublai. In memory of ‘Phags-pa, Kublai ordered temples built for him in each prefecture and stupas in many areas; Significantly, the temples were supposed to be larger than that for Confucius, which signified the importance of Tibetan Buddhism as compared to the traditional Confucianism in the political realm of the Yuan dynasty.

Sources:
Petech, Luciano, Tibetan Relations with Sung China and with the Mongols, China among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and its Neighbors, 10th-14th Centuries. Morris Rossabi (ed.) UC.P. 172-203
Dunnell, Ruth, The Hsia Origins of the Yuan Institution of Imperial Preceptor, Asian Major, 3rd series, Vol. V, Part I, 1992, 85-111
Watt, James C.Y., Wardwell, Anne E., When Silk Was Gold: Central Asian and Chinese Textiles, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 95-99
Bechwith, Christopher I., Tibetan Science at the Court of the Great Khans, J Tib Society Vol.7, 1987, 5-7
Rinchen Drashi, Tibetan Buddhism and the Yuan Royal Court, Tibetan Studies, 1-26.
Herbert, Franke, From Tribal Chieftain to Universal Emperor and God: The Legitimation of the Yuan Dynasty, Munich, 1978, 58- 64;
Herbert, Franke, Consecration of the “White Stupa” in 1279, Asian Major, 3rd series, Vol, II, Part 1, 155-183

Entry by Lan Wu

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Chengzong, Wenzong, Shundi

Borijigin Temur (r. 1294-1307)
Chengzong

Chengzong was Kubilai Khan’s grandson and succeeded to the throne after his grandfather’s death when the Crown Prince (his father) Zhenjin passed away. Chengzong continued the legacy that his grandfather left behind continuing the patronage of Tibetan Buddhism. When requested by the Imperial Preceptor Gragspa ‘od zer to pardon Danyi Chenpo Zangpo Pal, a member of the Khon family, Chengzong, due to great respect for the Imperial preceptor appointed by his grandfather, Chengzong gave his consent. Chengzong appointed Rinchen Gyaltsen in 1305 as his Imperial Preceptor. However, Rinchen rgyal _ would serve only a short period of time before his untimely death. Chengzong offered 500 taels of gold, 1000 taels of silver 10 000 bolts of cloth and paper cash worth of 3000 silver ingots and built a stupa and temple in memory of him. Chengzong would then grant the title of Imperial Preceptor to Sang rgyal dpal who would eventually serve Chengzong, Wuzong and Renzong until is death in 1314.

Jijaghatu Toq-Temür (r. 1328-1329 and 1329-1332)
Wenzong

Wenzong ascended the throne in 1328 but was forced to abdicate a year later when his older brother, Qoshila Qutuqtu (Mingzong Emperor), returned from Central Asia with a powerful military force to reclaim the throne. However, after the mysterious death of Mingzong in 1329, Wenzong regained the throne and ruled briefly till 1332. During his reign, Wenzong granted the title of Imperial Preceptor to Rin chen bkra shis (who was the last imperial preceptor recorded in the Biographies of Eminent Buddhist Monks and Taoists) in 1328.

Toghan-Temür (r. 1333-1370)
Shundi

Shundi was the last emperor of the Yuan dynasty and continued to rule under the dynastic name even after being expelled from China by Ming forces. He was said to have received tantric teachings from the fourth Karmapa, Rol pa’i rdo rje who was invited to the Court during Huizong’s reign in China to help pacify and receive blessings from deities to help stabilize the problems that the Mongols were facing at the end of their rule. Shundi’s rule added controversy to the already unpopular Tibetab Buddhism among the Chinese officials. When erotic rites and practices were performed publicly in Shundi’s court and Chinese officials registered their disgust and shock at such acts of debauchery. Moreover, an offering of human hearts and livers to Mahakala was attested by the Imperial Preceptor during Shundi’s reign. The Chinese officials who did not understand the significance of such rituals in Tibetan Buddhist practices often protested against such extravagant displays of rituals which added to the hostility between the Chinese and Tibetan lamas.


Sources:

Herbert Franke, Tibetans in Yuan China: China among equals: the Middle Kingdom and its neighbor, 10th – 14th Centuries, UC, P, 1983
Drashi Rinchen, Tibetan Buddhism and the Yuan Royal Court, In Tibet Studies, pp 1-26.

Entry by ShiQi Wu, 2/11/07

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Dam pa Kun dga’ grags

Dam pa Kun dga’ grags (胆巴国师, 1230-1303)

Other than his teacher, Pakspa, Dampa is the most influential Tibetan lama to the Yuan Dynasty. Dampa means “subtle and mysterious.” According to “Yuanshi (元史, The History of Yuan Dynasty.)”, his date of birth is not certain: he lived in the same time period with Pakspa. However, according to “Danbabei (胆巴碑, The Memorial of Dampa.)”, he was born in 1230, studied Buddhist scriptures from when he was young, and had a deep relationship with Sakyapa learning. When he became 24 in 1253, he went to Western India to study Buddhism. According to “Lidaifozutongzai (历代佛祖通载)”he was born in mdo-kham region (突甘斯旦麻), now is part of Tibetan autonomous regions of Sichuan province and Qinghai province.

When Dampa went to China, he was ordered to reside in the Shouning Temple on the Wutaishan. In 1272, he went to the capital (Yanjing) and gave esoteric initiations to princes and lords. In 1282, he asked the Emperor earnestly to be allowed return to the West because he could not get along with the Chancellor at the time, Hsiang-ko (Sangge). Then he was recalled and banished to Chaozhou. When he was in Chaozhou, the wife of the Deputy Commissioner of the Military Council got a strange illness, and Dampa cured Chengzong of sickness by praying for him. During the Yuanchen period (1295-1296), Qaidu violated the borders of Tibet. Chengzong asked Dampa to pray to Mahākāla, after which a letter reporting victory indeed arrived. He also prayed for an end to Chengzong’s illness which was cured instantly.

Dampa is reputed to have been a ‘swift runner’ (rkang-mgyogs) in the special tantric sense. He wrote nothing but bestowed tantric initiations upon suitable disciples, producing spontaneous enlightenment in some of them. Dampa was a person who influenced the cultural, political, and religious aspects of the relationship between the Yuan Dynasty and Tibet.

Sources:
周生文， 阵庆英, “大元蒂师八思巴在玉树的活动，” 西藏研究 No. 34. (1990)
周生文， 阵庆英, “元代藏族名僧胆巴国师考,” 中国藏学 No. 9. (1990)

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Khubilai Khan

Khubilai Khan (1215 – 1294)

Khubilai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty officially in 1271 and served as the Great Khan during the height of Mongol rule and power throughout China. Khan came to power after an intense civil war which pitted him against his relatives (descendents of Ghengis Khan), including his brother Mongke, who as emperor, had commanded his brother Qubilai to lead conquering expeditions in China’s Western frontiers.

Although it took Khan a few years to overthrow the southern Sung dynasty – a vast territorial expanse with more than 50 million people – when he formally declared the beginning of the Yuan Dynasty, he moved the capital from Karakorum (in modern-day Mongolia) to Beijing. Khan, who wanted to be known as the Khan of Khans and ruler of both Mongolia and China, inherited a China ravaged by civil war and in financial ruins.

From there, he led a dynasty characterized by trade and expeditions. Even though the late years of his rule would be marked by a foreboding lack of control of both domestic and foreign properties, foreign nations sent embassies to Khan’s court and even the king of Ceylon sent him presents. Such was the court Marco Polo visited on his trip to Asia. But Khan’s social works projects placed a huge financial burden on his empire. In 1289, Khan finished a 135-mile extension of The Grand Canal, whose maintenance costs paled in comparison to the price of material and wages of nearly 3 million workers it took to build the waterway. Khan’s project now allowed grain and other products to come directly from the Yangtze River to Beijing.

In an attempt to take Mongol expansion to the seas for the first time, Khan launched two large-scale and failed attacks against Japan. The first in 1274 used mostly Korean ships and the second in 1281 dealt a devastating blow to the empire’s sea power when a typhoon destroyed almost the entirety of the fleet. Under Khan, the Mongol empire launched two attacks against Vietnam, but were again badly beaten both times. In 1280, Khan organized China’s first expedition to Tibet to scout out the origins of the Yellow River.

Toward the end of his reign, in 1281, his favorite wife, Chabi, died and five years later, his appointed successor and son followed his mother. Loneliness contributed to Khan’s indulgence in food and alcohol, which led to afflictions of obesity and gout. His tomb has yet to be discovered and no record of an elaborate burial exists.

Sources:
Lewis, Archibald Ross. “Nomads and Crusaders, A.D. 1000-1368.” Indiana University Press, c1988.
Elverskog, Johan. “Our Great Qing: The Monogls, Buddhism and the State in late Imperial China.”
Kapstein, Matthew T. “The Tibetans.”
Rossabi, Morris. “Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times.”

Entry by Megan H. Chan, 1/29/07

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Gtsang po pa Dkon mchog seng ge

Gtsang po pa Dkon mchog seng ge/ Gtsang pa Bkra shis (?-1218/1219)

Gtsang po pa was a Tibetan from central Tibet. He was a disciple of the first Karma pa, Dum gsum mkhan pa (1110-1193). When his teacher was summoned by the Mi nyak king, Dkon mchog seng ge went in his place. He is most famous for being one of the later Imperial Preceptors (dishi 帝師) of the Mi nyak or Xia Dynasty, which is why he is also called Gtsang pa Ti shri (Ch. dishi), or “the one from Tsang, Imperial Preceptor.” He was richly rewarded for his services and was permitted to send gifts and go on leave to his home monastery of Mtshur phu. In the end though, he died in the culturally Tibetan city of Liangzhou (Ling chu gser khab/ Byang ngos), in southern Mi nyag territory, where he had students.

His most important student was another central Tibet, named ‘Gro mgon Ti shri ras pa (Protector of Beings, the Imperial Preceptor, Cotton-clad) Sangs rgyas ras chen (1164/1165-1236). Although originally trained in different branch of the Bka’ brgyud tradition, the ‘Ba’ rom pa, he was a student of Gtsang po pa after he arrived in the Mi nyag realm in 1196/1197. He was thus the second and last of the ethnically Tibetan imperial preceptors to serve at the Mi nyag court. When the Mongols eliminated the Mi nyak dynasty, one of his students, a Tibetan native to the Mi nyak region named Gsang ba ras pa dkar po (The Secret One, Clad in White Cotton) Shes rab byang chub (1198/1199-1262) continued the ‘Ba’ rom pa Bka’ brgyud tradition. He later met Qubilai Khan, creating a direct link between the Mi nyag tradition of imperial preceptors and the Mongol Yuan establishment of a position bearing the same title.


Sources:

Ruth Dunnell. The Hsia Origins of the Yüan Institution of Imperial Preceptor. Asia Major. Third Series, Vol. 5, part 1, 1992, pp. 85-111
Elliot Sperling. “Rtsa-mi lo-tsā-ba Sangs-rgyas grags-pa and the Tangut Background to Early Mongol-Tibetan Relations,” in Per Kvaerne, ed., Tibetan Studies. Proceedings of the 6th Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, Oslo, 1994, pp. 801-824 & “‘Lama to the King of Hsia’” The Journal of the Tibet Society, vol. 7, 1987, pp. 31-50 [based mainly on an 18th century source that cites much earlier original sources now lost].

Entry by Gray Tuttle