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Sangge

Sangge/Sangko (? – 1291)

This Tibetan (Kamalok) statesman rose to power quickly from his first meeting with Pakpa to his official appointment in Qubilai Khan’s court. He was also rumored to be of Ughyur descent and little recorded history exists considering his early years. As the head of the Sino-Mongol financial empire, Sangge’s control went unchecked by the emperor and was characterized in memory by corruption, oppression and tyranny.

Fluent in Mongolian, Chinese, Uyghur, Tibetan and other languages, Sangge ascended to power mainly through his interpreting skills, which gained him favor with ‘Phags pa. During his appointment in the Zongzhi yuan (created in 1264), Sangge enjoyed the favor and protection of the lama who in turn introduced him to Qubilai Khan. 1272 is the first year on record where Sangge is mentioned as an imperial official.

Sangge’s power climaxed in 1287, when he was appointed as chancellor of the right of the Supreme Secretariat. At the same time, he served as the head of Zongzhi yuan and another governmental body in charge of Buddhist pious works. Sangge continued his power by influencing the appointments underneath him, giving him full control of his bureaucracy.

Sangge strengthened the Mongolian military grasp over Tibet, strategically distributing troops at the center and border of the territory. This marked the first permanent occupation of Tibet by Chinese imperial troops. Soon after, Sangge focused his efforts on reorganizing the Tibetan postal service – a move that failed due to the immense pressure it exerted on residents who lived in postal districts and quickly fled. At his golden years in power, Sangge also continued to reform the country’s currency system.

In his incredibly powerful position, Sangge only needed to answer to the emperor himself, an unchecked power system that eventually led to his downfall. When the emperor was finally made aware of Sangge’s disrespectful etiquette and corruption (for example, he unsealed a box of fruit sent from the emperor as tribute), he ordered Sangge executed. After a long delay and governmental seizure of his family’s assets, Sangge was executed on Aug. 17, 1291.


Source:

Luciano Petech, Sang-ko, a Tibetan statesman in Yüan China. Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientarium Hungaricae 34:193-208. 1980

Entry by Megan H. Chan, 2/12/07

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Shalopa

Sha-lo-pa Kuan-chao/ Shaluopa Guanzhao/ Shes rab dpal

Sha-lo-pa Kuan-chao沙羅巴was a Tibetan Buddhist cleric, introduced to the Mongol court by his influential teacher, ’Phags-pa Lama. He then spent the greater part of his life in China, not only as a monk cooperating with the government managing Buddhist affairs, but also as a scholar, who was versed in many languages, translating Buddhist scriptures into Chinese. The effort to reconstruct Sha-lo-pa’s life with clues found in Western literature and Tibetan sources is challenging, since there is no substantial information on his biography. He is merely mentioned along side Tibetan Buddhism under the Mongols in the 13th and 14th centuries. The only account regarding his life is in Chinese, in Fozu Lidai Tongzai 佛祖歷代通載, “Encyclopedia of Buddha and his patriarchs under successive dynasties,” an annalistic chronicle compiled by the Ch’an monk Nien-ch’ang. The following is a broad view of Sha-lo-pa’s biography in Fo-tsu li-tai t’ung-tsai:

Sha luo ba (1259-1314) came from Jining 積寧. His personal name was Sha luo ba Guanzhao. Due to the facts that he had spent a great part of his life in China and befriended with many Chinese intellectuals, he also adopted a Chinese name (hao), Xueyan xue yan 雪岩 “Snow Cliff”. He was the youngest of four brothers. At a very young age, he already shaved his head and became a monk, following the guidance of the Imperial Preceptor ’Phags-pa. ’Phags-pa ordered him to go to La-wen-pu, whose knowledge of the essentials of the esoteric Buddhism was impressive, and studied with him.

Sha luo ba’s role in translation is important. When Emperor Shizu [Qubilai] received lectures from the imperial Preceptor ’Phags-pa, Sha luo ba was ordered to translate his words. The emperor was impressed by his translation and honored him as Greatly Discerning and Vastly Wise Teacher of the Law大辯廣智法師 (Dabian Guangzhi Fashi). Later the Imperial Preceptor Grags-pa ‘od-zer recommended Sha-lo-pa to the emperor as the candidate to translate the esoteric materials, which were to be distributed widely. Treated with great respect and honor, the people from the former Tangut state of Xi Xia always addressed him with his family instead of personal name.

In 1295, Sha-lo-pa was made Inspector-General of the Buddhist Religion in all of Jiangzhe江浙等處釋教都總統. In 1298, he was appointed as Inspector-General of the Buddhist Religion in all of Fujian統福廣. Even after he expressed his wish for retirement, the emperor still consulted him about the Buddhist Law. Sometime during 1308-1312, Sha luo ba was summoned by the crown prince and honored with the rank of Guanglu dafu situ光祿大夫司徒. Afterwards, Sha-lo-pa resided in the Temple of Felicitous Longevity慶壽寺 (Qingshou si) until he passed away in 1314, aged 56.

During his life time, Sha luo ba brought Anike/Anige/Aniko (1244-1306), an architect and sculptor from Nepal to China. Aniko influenced Chinese sculpture greatly and planned the construction of the White Stupa (Baita si) in Beijing.


Sources:

Herbert Franke.1985. Sha-lo-pa (1259-1314), a Tangut Buddhist monk in Yüan China, Religion und Philosophie in Ostasien, Festschrift für Hans Steininger zun 65. Geburstag. Wuurzburg: Könighausen & Neumann. 22pp. 佛光大辭典

Entry by Agnes Lin, 2/13/07

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Yang Lianzhenjia

Yang Lianzhenjia 楊璉真加 (Tib. Yang Rin chen skyabs) (fl. 1277-1292)

Yang Lianzhenjia’s place of origin and background are unknown, but he may have been Tibetan or Tangut. His early career is completely obscure, but we know he was a protégé of Sangge 桑哥 (alt. Sengge, Sang-ko, Sangga, Samgha) before the Mongol conquest of the Song in 1276.

In 1277, Yang Lianzhenjia was appointed Supervisor of the Buddhist Teaching South of the (Yangzi) River (Jiangnan zongshe zhang shijiao 江南總攝掌釋教), a post under the Bureau of General Regulations (Zongzhi yuan總制院). He was headquartered in Hangzhou and held unlimited control over Buddhist monasteries and sacred sites in former Song dynasty territories. Up until 1285, he is credited as having restored to the Buddhists dozens of stupas and temples that had been converted to secular or Daoist use under the Song. Several hundreds of Daoists are said to have been made to abandon their faith and become Buddhist monks.

In 1285, Yang Lianzhenjia destroyed the buildings and grounds that had formally been the Song imperial tombs near Shaoxing. He seized the mausoleum of the Ningzong emperor of the Song and converted it for Buddhist use on the basis that the entire site had originally been a great Buddhist temple. In 1286, Yang obtained court support to command complete control over lands and fields formerly belonging to Buddhist temples in the greater Hangzhou region. The financial proceeds of these lands were to be handed directly to him presumably for the maintenance and repair of Buddhist sites in his charge. Both of these events had been permitted and approved by Yang’s superior, Sangge, without the knowledge of the emperor. Sangge, in 1287, had acquired exceptional power as Supreme Chancellor of the Right (you chengxiang 右丞相) in the newly reestablished Supreme Secretariat (shangshu sheng尚書省) while retaining his position as the head of the Bureau of General Regulations.

In 1288, Yang Lianzhenjia reported to the court that the former Song dynasty palaces had been converted into stupas and Buddhist temples, and that the funds to support these grand structures should be come from the seizure of additional lands. The cornerstone for one hall had yet to be installed, and Yang proposed that a stele on which the nine Confucian classics were inscribed in Song emperor Gaozu’s own handwriting be used for the purpose. The motion met with significant local resistance and was ultimately prevented.

By 1291, reports of Yang’s actions reached the emperor and even Sangge was unable to avoid official investigation. It took more than a year for authorities to complete an inventory of riches Yang Lianzhenjia appropriated, which included lavish stores of paper money, gold, silver, and jade, as well as ownership records of unreported agricultural lands. Furthermore, young women offered to him as bribes were “confiscated” and sent to the capital and he was implicated in the deaths of four people.

The official record of Yang’s activities cannot be interpreted without noting the potential bias of Chinese historians. Yang Lianzhenjia may have understood his actions as being within the context of establishing and protecting Buddhism throughout the realm. For example, in addition to restoring temples and constructing new sacred sites, Yang commissioned the carving of esoteric Buddhist stone sculptures on the caves of Feilai Feng 飛來峰. However, the aggressiveness and grandeur with which Yang carried out his duties offended Chinese sensibilities and he remains to this day the controversial figure responsible for the desecration of the Song imperial tombs.


Sources:

Herbert Franke. “Tibetans in Yüan China.” In China among equals: the Middle Kingdom and its neighbors, 10th-14th centuries. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983
Luciano Petech. “Sang-ko, a Tibetan statesman in Yüan China.” Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientarium Hungaricae 34 (1980):193-208
Heather Karmay. Early Sino-Tibetan Art. Aris and Phillips, 1975. p. 24.

Entry by Neil E. McGee, 2/2/2007

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Ye Shes Rin Chen

Ye Shes Rin Chen/ Yi Lin Zhen (1248-1294)

The fourth Imperial Preceptor Ye shes rin chen was born in 1248 to the east of Sa skya Monastery in Central Tibet. He was a child prodigy and mastered his seminary studies at a young age. His specialty was the Kālacakra-tantra. In fact, in Tibetan historiography he is remembered more for his contribution to the Kālacakra lineage than his role as Imperial Preceptor. For instance, in a recently published who’s who of Tibetan historical figures his primary title is that of Kālacakra master (dus ‘khor ba), not Imperial Preceptor.

Ye shes rin chen was a close associate of ‘Phags pa. The latter lived in and around Sa skya from 1264-1269, while Ye shes rin chen would have been a monk at that great center of learning. Recognizing his scholarship and proficiency in ritual arts, ‘Phags pa invited him to Lintao in 1272. Ye shes rin chen accompanied ‘Phags pa to the Yuan court in 1275. There he met Kublai Khan and gained his favor. ‘Phags pa then returned to Tibet, while Ye shes rin chen remained behind in Dadu to serve as a chaplain at the court.

The office of Imperial Preceptor was created for ‘Phags pa in 1270. The ritual traditions ‘Phags pa was famous for were considered his family’s unique heritage, and the succeeding two Imperial Preceptors were members of his family. Most of the subsequent Imperial Preceptors were also relatives of ‘Phags pa. Nevertheless, Ye shes rin chen proved to be an outstanding diplomat and ritual specialist, and in 1268 this monk born outside of the Sa skya family was made Imperial Preceptor. His tenure lasted from 1268-1294. The fourth Imperial Preceptor – and Kālacakra master – Ye shes rin chen died at Wutai Shan in the last year of his reign, 1294.

Sources:
Luciano Petech. 1983. Tibetan Relations with Sung China and the Mongols. In China among equals: the Middle Kingdom and its neighbors, 10th-14th centuries. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 173-204
Rinchen trashi. “Tibetan Buddhism and the Yuan Royal Court.” Tibet Studies. pp. 1-26; Ming mdzod. 1992. Dus ‘khor ba Ye shes rin chen entry. p. 824.

Entry by Jann Ronis, 2/13/07

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Guanzhuba

Guanzhuba 管主巴 (Tib. bKa’ ‘gyur pa)

Guanzhuba was the General Secretary of the Buddhist Clergy in Songjiang Prefecture by imperial appointment in the early 14th century. The office of the Buddhist Clergy was one of the many offices under the administration of the Commission of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs (Ch. Xuan zheng yuan). The Commission was responsible for the Buddhist affairs of the entire nation as well as local administration of Tibetan areas and was directed by the Imperial Preceptor.

Guanzhuba is thought to be of either Xixia or Tibetan descent, with a Tibetan education. According to a Chinese colophon to a Xixia text found in the Mogao Cave in Dunhuang dated to 1307, he was responsible for directing the printing and distribution of numerous significant Buddhist texts in Chinese, Xixia, and Tibetan script.

He is perhaps most known for the reprinting of the complete edition of the Xixia Tripitaka (Ch. Xixiazang) in the Dawanshou Monastery in Hangzhou in 1302 under the imperial command of Khubilai Khan (although Khubilai passed away in 1294). At the completion of printing, Guanzhuba distributed numerous copies to monasteries in areas of the former Xixia state. This reprint was based on an edition that was originally printed during the time of the Xixia state (1032-1226AD). Examining the wood-cut illustrations within both editions of the Xixia Tripitaka, Guanzhuba’s later Xixia Tripitaka (classified as the Yuan kan) show transformations in composition and style that reflect an amalgamation of Tibetan and Chinese elements as compared to the woodcut illustrations from the earlier Xixa Tripitaka (classified as the Xixia kan) that reflect an early Tibetan style influenced by the Indian Pala dynasty.

Guanzhuba also printed Tibetan-language texts of the Gandhatara, Prajnaparamita, and Sitatapatra, which he distributed in Tibet (Ch. Tufan).

Additionally, he was responsible for printing the missing esoteric sections of the Jisha (or Qisha) edition of the Chinese Tripitaka (Ch. Jishazang) from 1306-07. To finish these sections, he took up donations, collections of funds, as well as used his own personal contributions. He also undertook the task of printing the missing esoteric sections for editions of Tripitakas that he collected from various other provinces.

After the destruction of the Xixia state at the hands of Chinggis Khan in 1227, the continued interest in, as well as ability to, order the reprinting of the Xixia canon more than seven decades later demonstrates the continued influence of Xixia culture in the Yuan. The geographic scope of Guanzhuba’s activities, extending from Tibet and Xixia in the west to Fujian and Zhejiang in the east, as well as his printing base in Hangzhou, the cultural capital of the Han Chinese, reveal the pervasive paths of esoteric Buddhism under the Yuan.


Sources:

Patricia Berger. Preserving the Nation: The Political Uses of Tantric Art in China. In Later Days of the Law: Images of Chinese Buddhism 850-1850. Lawrence: Spencer Museum of Art, University of Kansas. 1994. pp. 89-125.
Heather Karmay. Early Sino-Tibetan Art. Aris and Phillips. 1975. pp. 35-42.
Rinchen Drashi. “Tibetan Buddhism and the Yuan Royal Court,” Tibet Studies. 1988. pp. 1-26.

Entry by Eveline S. Yang, 1/30/07

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Köden

Köden (Died between 1253-1260)

Köden was Ögödei Khan’s second son and primarily had his seat of power located in Liangzhou, which had been under the rule of the Xia Empire. According to historical records, Köden was likely the first member of the Mongol ruling house that came into contact with the Sa skya Sect of Tibetan Buddhism when he launched an attack on Tibet in 1240AD. Dor-ta, the general who led the army into Tibet, had intended to return to Liangzhou with the Bri gung abbot. The abbot was to give advice and instruct the Mongols on the Buddhist doctrine. However, the Bri gung abbot, for fear of his life, declined the invitation and instead suggested to Dor-ta that the Sa skya Pandita was perhaps a better choice for the job. As a result, Köden summoned the Sa skya Pandita in 1244 and the first historical meeting between a member of the Mongol ruling house and leader of a Tibetan Buddhist sect occurred in 1246. Later Tibetan histories claimed that Sa skya Pandita was given a new political role where he was incorporated into the Mongol bureaucracy as the representative of the new rulers in Tibet. During Köden’s contact with the Sa skya Pandita, the latter healed Köden from an illness which was said to have been one of the reasons he was by-passed as a candidate to the position of Khan. However, in another little known work of ‘Phags pa, the first Imperial Preceptor under Kubilai Khan, he mentioned that Köden had received special blessings from the Sa skya Pandita and was able to “speedily produce a son”. As a reward for the Pandita’s act, Köden gave him the local temple Sprul pa’i sde (白塔寺 Baitasi or White Stupa Temple) where the Sa skya Pandita was later buried in 1251.

After the death of Güyüg Khan, a series of power struggles came into play with Möngke Khan emerging victorious. The members of the new Mongol ruling house took over patronage of the different Tibetan sects. The Sa skya sect was still left in the care of Köden while Khubilai, Möngke’s younger brother was given the Tshal pa sect. However, on his way back from an attack in Sichuan around 1252-53, Kubilai requested that Koöen hand over Phags pa, the Sa Skya Pandita’s nephew and had a personal audience with him. Kubilai was impressed with the wisdom of ‘Phags pa and consequently honored him with the title of Imperial Preceptor some years later. Köden’s influence and authority over the Sa skya sect was thus transferred to Kubilai Khan.


Sources:

Luciano Petech. 1983. Tibetan Relations with Sung China and the Mongols, In China among equals: The Middle Kingdom and its neighbors, 10th – 14th Centuries. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 173-204
Drashi Rinchen, Tibetan Buddhism and the Yuan Royal Court, In Tibetan Studies, pp 1-26.
Chris Beckwith, 1987, Tibetan Science at the Court of the Great Khans, In Tibetan Society Vol. 7. pp 5-11.

Entry by ShiQi Wu, 1/30/07

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Sa-skya Pandita

Sa-skya Pandita / Pandit from Sakya (1182-1251)

Künga Gyeltsen was a son of Pelchen Öpo, the eldest son of the first of the five Sakya superiors, Sachen Künga Nyingpo. When he was a teenager, he left Sakya and studied under various teachers of the major Indian Buddhist philosophical and doctrinal trends. In 1204, when the Kashmiri master Shakyashribhadra brought Indian scholars to Tibet, Sakya Pandita learned directly from knowledgeable Indians and went back to Sakya with Suhatashri, one of the scholars. After his uncle and a teacher, Drakpa Gyeltsen, died in 1216, Sakya Pandita became a leader of the religious tradition of Sakya.

Koden was a grand son of Genghis Khan. After he led an unsuccessful campaign in Sichuan, he turned his attention to Tibet. He summoned Sakya Pandita in 1244 with a letter with courteous tone, but threatening contents. Sakya Pandita went to Liangzhou (凉州=武威), with two of his nephews, Pakpa Lodrö Gyeltsen and Chakna Dorjé. Sakya Pandita and Koden agreed on the main points of their future relationships in 1247. Sakya Pandita sent letters to Ü, Tsang and Ngari, and advised them to submit and allow the Mongols to exact taxes and to levy troops. Sakya Pandita spent rest of his life in Liangzhou, and passed away in 1251. He was honored by both Tibetans and Mongolian peoples.


Sources:

Matthew T. Kapstein, “The Tibetans.” (Massachusetts, 2006)
Luciano Petech, “Tibetan Relations with Sung China and the Mongols” in “China among equals: the Middle Kingdom and its neighbors, 10th-14th centuries.” (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983)
Hankyu Kim, “The Historical Relationship Between China and Tibet.” (Seoul, 2003)

Entry by Seul ki Park, 2/07

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‘Phags pa

‘Phags-pa

Following the religious preceptorship that emerged in Tangut state (Chin.: Great Hsia or Hsi Hsia 西夏, 1038-1227) as a model, Mongol rulers adopted this institution of imperial preceptorship (Chin.: ti-shih 帝師) as a means of dealing with the increasing multiethnic population within its territory. First Chinese Buddhism, and then Tibetan Buddhism won over the Mongol Royal family. ‘Phags-pa was a well known Tibetan scholar-monk who was recognized as “imperial preceptor” (1260) and “state preceptor” later by Kublai Khan.

‘Phags-pa (1235-1280) was a member of the Sa skya sect of Buddhism. ‘Phags-pa accompanied his uncle Kunga Gyaltsen, the fourth forefather of the Sa skya sect to Liangzhou for an interview with Prince Godan in 1244. After Kunga Gyaltsen died in Liangzhou in 1251, ‘Phags-pa remained in the Huanhua monastery in Liangzhou at his age of sixteen. ‘Phags-pa became an important historical figure since he had an interview with the then Prince Kublai on Mt. Liupanshan in 1253. Kublai received a Buddhist consecration (Abhiseka) by ‘Phags-pa in 1253 and treated him as his tutor thereafter. When Kublai ascended the throne, he granted ‘Phags-pa the title of “Imperial Preceptor” and gave him responsibility for Buddhist affairs within Yuan dynasty’s territory. Later, ‘Phags-pa was also granted a title “Great Treasure Prince of Dharma” due to his invention of a Mongolian script, called “’Phags-pa Script” nowadays, which was promoted throughout the state in the course of Yuan dynasty; and honored with the title of “Imperial Preceptor of the Yuan Dynasty”.

In addition to invent “’Phags-pa Script”, ‘Phags-pa also introduced the cult of Yamantaka into China, and it seems that ‘Phags-pa had knowledge of medicine as well. ‘Phags-pa, therefore, was not merely a powerful religious figure, but also was an important scholar in other areas. His huge influence on Mongol was mainly accomplished by tutoring or advising the member of the royal family, rather than the civilians within the state. Kublai’s choice of ‘Phags-pa remains controversial, in part due to the young age at which he was recognized as Kublai’s tutor. Nevertheless, ‘Phags-pa was a promising monk and the Mongolian influence on him was hugely important for Kublai to control the multiethnic state.

From the Tibetan perspective, ‘Phags-pa was a prominent Lama for many reasons. ‘Phags-pa went back to Sa skya in the summer of 1264 and he set up thirteen official posts. ‘Phags-pa came back Sa skya in 1274 due to the social disorder in Tubo, with the permission from Kublai Khan. He died in Sa skya on November 24, 1280. Ye Rinchen, ‘Phags-pa’s brother succeeded his position of Imperial Preceptor afterwards. ‘Phags-pa was granted posthumously a title of “Lord Under the Divine Sky, Propagator of Literature of the Court, Great Sage of the Highest Virtue, Profound Wisdom and Accomplished Enlightenment, Great Treasure Prince of the Dharma, Prince of the Deities of Paradise, Pandita the Imerpial preceptor.” by Kublai. In memory of ‘Phags-pa, Kublai ordered temples built for him in each prefecture and stupas in many areas; Significantly, the temples were supposed to be larger than that for Confucius, which signified the importance of Tibetan Buddhism as compared to the traditional Confucianism in the political realm of the Yuan dynasty.

Sources:
Petech, Luciano, Tibetan Relations with Sung China and with the Mongols, China among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and its Neighbors, 10th-14th Centuries. Morris Rossabi (ed.) UC.P. 172-203
Dunnell, Ruth, The Hsia Origins of the Yuan Institution of Imperial Preceptor, Asian Major, 3rd series, Vol. V, Part I, 1992, 85-111
Watt, James C.Y., Wardwell, Anne E., When Silk Was Gold: Central Asian and Chinese Textiles, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 95-99
Bechwith, Christopher I., Tibetan Science at the Court of the Great Khans, J Tib Society Vol.7, 1987, 5-7
Rinchen Drashi, Tibetan Buddhism and the Yuan Royal Court, Tibetan Studies, 1-26.
Herbert, Franke, From Tribal Chieftain to Universal Emperor and God: The Legitimation of the Yuan Dynasty, Munich, 1978, 58- 64;
Herbert, Franke, Consecration of the “White Stupa” in 1279, Asian Major, 3rd series, Vol, II, Part 1, 155-183

Entry by Lan Wu

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Chengzong, Wenzong, Shundi

Borijigin Temur (r. 1294-1307)
Chengzong

Chengzong was Kubilai Khan’s grandson and succeeded to the throne after his grandfather’s death when the Crown Prince (his father) Zhenjin passed away. Chengzong continued the legacy that his grandfather left behind continuing the patronage of Tibetan Buddhism. When requested by the Imperial Preceptor Gragspa ‘od zer to pardon Danyi Chenpo Zangpo Pal, a member of the Khon family, Chengzong, due to great respect for the Imperial preceptor appointed by his grandfather, Chengzong gave his consent. Chengzong appointed Rinchen Gyaltsen in 1305 as his Imperial Preceptor. However, Rinchen rgyal _ would serve only a short period of time before his untimely death. Chengzong offered 500 taels of gold, 1000 taels of silver 10 000 bolts of cloth and paper cash worth of 3000 silver ingots and built a stupa and temple in memory of him. Chengzong would then grant the title of Imperial Preceptor to Sang rgyal dpal who would eventually serve Chengzong, Wuzong and Renzong until is death in 1314.

Jijaghatu Toq-Temür (r. 1328-1329 and 1329-1332)
Wenzong

Wenzong ascended the throne in 1328 but was forced to abdicate a year later when his older brother, Qoshila Qutuqtu (Mingzong Emperor), returned from Central Asia with a powerful military force to reclaim the throne. However, after the mysterious death of Mingzong in 1329, Wenzong regained the throne and ruled briefly till 1332. During his reign, Wenzong granted the title of Imperial Preceptor to Rin chen bkra shis (who was the last imperial preceptor recorded in the Biographies of Eminent Buddhist Monks and Taoists) in 1328.

Toghan-Temür (r. 1333-1370)
Shundi

Shundi was the last emperor of the Yuan dynasty and continued to rule under the dynastic name even after being expelled from China by Ming forces. He was said to have received tantric teachings from the fourth Karmapa, Rol pa’i rdo rje who was invited to the Court during Huizong’s reign in China to help pacify and receive blessings from deities to help stabilize the problems that the Mongols were facing at the end of their rule. Shundi’s rule added controversy to the already unpopular Tibetab Buddhism among the Chinese officials. When erotic rites and practices were performed publicly in Shundi’s court and Chinese officials registered their disgust and shock at such acts of debauchery. Moreover, an offering of human hearts and livers to Mahakala was attested by the Imperial Preceptor during Shundi’s reign. The Chinese officials who did not understand the significance of such rituals in Tibetan Buddhist practices often protested against such extravagant displays of rituals which added to the hostility between the Chinese and Tibetan lamas.


Sources:

Herbert Franke, Tibetans in Yuan China: China among equals: the Middle Kingdom and its neighbor, 10th – 14th Centuries, UC, P, 1983
Drashi Rinchen, Tibetan Buddhism and the Yuan Royal Court, In Tibet Studies, pp 1-26.

Entry by ShiQi Wu, 2/11/07

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Dam pa Kun dga’ grags

Dam pa Kun dga’ grags (胆巴国师, 1230-1303)

Other than his teacher, Pakspa, Dampa is the most influential Tibetan lama to the Yuan Dynasty. Dampa means “subtle and mysterious.” According to “Yuanshi (元史, The History of Yuan Dynasty.)”, his date of birth is not certain: he lived in the same time period with Pakspa. However, according to “Danbabei (胆巴碑, The Memorial of Dampa.)”, he was born in 1230, studied Buddhist scriptures from when he was young, and had a deep relationship with Sakyapa learning. When he became 24 in 1253, he went to Western India to study Buddhism. According to “Lidaifozutongzai (历代佛祖通载)”he was born in mdo-kham region (突甘斯旦麻), now is part of Tibetan autonomous regions of Sichuan province and Qinghai province.

When Dampa went to China, he was ordered to reside in the Shouning Temple on the Wutaishan. In 1272, he went to the capital (Yanjing) and gave esoteric initiations to princes and lords. In 1282, he asked the Emperor earnestly to be allowed return to the West because he could not get along with the Chancellor at the time, Hsiang-ko (Sangge). Then he was recalled and banished to Chaozhou. When he was in Chaozhou, the wife of the Deputy Commissioner of the Military Council got a strange illness, and Dampa cured Chengzong of sickness by praying for him. During the Yuanchen period (1295-1296), Qaidu violated the borders of Tibet. Chengzong asked Dampa to pray to Mahākāla, after which a letter reporting victory indeed arrived. He also prayed for an end to Chengzong’s illness which was cured instantly.

Dampa is reputed to have been a ‘swift runner’ (rkang-mgyogs) in the special tantric sense. He wrote nothing but bestowed tantric initiations upon suitable disciples, producing spontaneous enlightenment in some of them. Dampa was a person who influenced the cultural, political, and religious aspects of the relationship between the Yuan Dynasty and Tibet.

Sources:
周生文， 阵庆英, “大元蒂师八思巴在玉树的活动，” 西藏研究 No. 34. (1990)
周生文， 阵庆英, “元代藏族名僧胆巴国师考,” 中国藏学 No. 9. (1990)